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| partof=First Fitna | date=July 26 to July 28, 657 AD | place=Siffin, Syria | result=Inconclusive 2nd Major Muslim Civil War | combatant1=23px Rashidun Caliphate | combatant2=Bani Umayya | commander1= 23px Ali ibn Abi-Taleb 23px Hassan ibn Ali 23px Malik al-Ashtar 23px Abd-Allah ibn Abbas 23px Ammar ibn Yasir 23px Khuzaima ibn Thabit 23px Hashim ibn Utbah | commander2=Muawiyah I Marwan I Amr ibn al-As Walid ibn Uqba | strength1= | strength2= | casualties1= | casualties2= }} The Battle of Siffin (; May–July 657 CE) occurred during the First Fitna, or first Muslim civil war, with the main engagement taking place from July 26 to July 28. It was fought between Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib and Muawiyah I, on the banks of the Euphrates river, in what is now Ar-Raqqah, Syria. ==Background== (詳細はByzantine–Sassanid Wars, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.〔Hofmann (2007), p.86〕 As new areas joined the Islamic State, they also benefited from free trade while trading with other areas in the Islamic State; so as to encourage commerce, Muslims taxed wealth instead of trade.〔Islam: An Illustrated History By Greville Stewart Parker Freeman-Grenville, Stuart Christopher Munro-Hay Page 40〕 The Muslims paid Zakat on their wealth to the poor. Since the Constitution of Medina was drafted by the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the Jews and the Christians continued to use their own laws in the Islamic State and had their own judges.〔R. B. Serjeant, "Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'", ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'' (1978), 41: 1–42, Cambridge University Press.〕〔Watt. Muhammad at Medina and R. B. Serjeant "The Constitution of Medina." ''Islamic Quarterly'' 8 (1964) p. 4.〕〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Madinah Peace Treaty )〕 Therefore, they only paid for policing for the protection of their property. To assist in the quick expansion of the state, the Byzantine and the Persian tax collection systems were maintained and the people paid a poll tax lower than the one imposed under the Byzantines and the Persians. Before Prophet Muhammad united the Arabs, the Arabs had been divided and the Byzantines and the Sassanid had their own client tribes that they used to pay to fight on their behalf. In 639, Muawiyah I was appointed the Governor of Syria by Umar after his elder brother Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan (Governor of Syria) died in a plague, along with Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah (the Governor before him) and 25,000 other people. To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the Arab-Byzantine Wars, in 649 Muawiyah set up a navy, manned by Monophysitise Christians, Copts and Jacobite Syrian Christians sailors and Muslim troops. This resulted in the defeat of the Byzantine navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655, opening up the Mediterranean. 500 Byzantine ships were destroyed in the battle, and Emperor Constans II was almost killed. Under the instructions of the caliph Uthman ibn al-Affan, Muawiyah then prepared for the siege of Constantinople. The rapid Muslim conquest of Syria and Egypt and the consequent Byzantine losses in manpower and territory meant that the Eastern Roman Empire found itself struggling for survival. The Sassanid Dynasty in Persia had already collapsed. Following the Roman–Persian Wars and the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars, deep-rooted differences between Iraq, formerly under the Persian Sassanid Empire, and Syria, formerly under the Byzantine Empire, also existed. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic state to be in their area.〔Karim M. S. Al-Zubaidi, ''Iraq, a Complicated State: Iraq's Freedom War'', p. 32〕 Previously, the second caliph Umar was very firm on the governors and his spies kept an eye on them. If he felt that a governor or a commander was becoming attracted to wealth or did not meet the required administrative standards, he had him removed from his position. Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because Umar feared that they might become attracted to wealth and luxury.〔 Some cities also had agreements with the Muslims, such as during the Siege of Jerusalem in 637 CE. As Uthman ibn al-Affan grew older, Marwan I, a relative of Muawiyah I, slipped into the vacuum and became his secretary, slowly assuming more control and relaxing some of these restrictions. Marwan I had previously been excluded from positions of responsibility. Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, the son of Abu Bakr and the adopted son of Ali ibn Abi Talib and Muhammad bin Abi Hudhaifa, the adopted son of Uthman, had no senior positions. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Battle of Siffin」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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